Vedupro: August 2012

Thursday, 30 August 2012

Paramagnetism, Explanation of Paramagnetism, Introduction to Diamagnetism

PARAMAGNETISM -- EXPLANATION OF PARAMAGNETISM -- INTRODUCTION TO PARAMAGNETISM

This property is found in substance in which there are odd number of electrons in atoms of them i.e., the atom has an excess of electron which have spin in one direction. In the absence of external field these atomic field magnet are generally randomly oriented within the entire substance so that the net magnet moment is zero.

Diamagnetism, Explanation of Diamagnetism, Introduction to Diamagnetism

DIAMANGETISM -- EXPLANATION OF DIAMAGNETISM -- INTRODUCTION TO DIAMAGNETISM

The property of Diamagnetism is found in these substances whose atoms have even number of electron which form pair. In the electron pair, the direction of spin of one electron is opposite to that of the other so Magnetic moment of an atom of a diamagnetic is zero.

Magnetic Properties of Materials, Types of Substances, Fundamental of Or...

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

We know that matter is made up of atom. Each atom consists of a positively charged nucleus around which electrons revolve in various discrete orbits. Each revolving electron is equivalent to a tiny current loop and gives a dipole moment to the atom. Besides this, electrons also spin on it own axis and this spin also produces a magnetic dipole moment. There are three types of Substances
i. Diamagnetism Substances
ii. Paramagnetism Substances
iii. Ferromagnetism Substances

Relation between Electric Susceptibility and Dielectric Constant, Electr...

RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY: When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field. It becomes electrically polarized. For most material the polarization is proportional to electric field. Electrical Susceptibility is denoted by X_e which is dimensionless.

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT: When dielectric material is introduced between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance of the capacitor increases.

Clausius Mossotti Equation, Clausius Mossotti Relation, Clausius Mossott...

CLAUSIUS MOSSOTTI EQUATION

The relation is in between the microscopic property called Molecular Polarizability and Macroscopic Property is called Dielectric Constant. The Clausius Mossotti equation is valid for non polar solid having cubic crystal structure.

LIMITATION OF THE CLAUSIUS MOSSOTTI EQUATION
i. Polarization is considered as proportional to the field.
ii. The polarizable molecules are isotropic.
iii. Absence of short-range interaction.

Wednesday, 29 August 2012

Polar and Non Polar Molecules Polar and Non Polar Dielectric

POLAR MATERIAL AND NON POLAR MATERIALS -- POLAR AND NON POLAR DIELECTRIC

NON POLAR DIELECTRIC: A Non Polar Molecule, the molecules are usually dielectric and composed of two atoms of the same type. They posses symmetrical structure i.e, their positive nuclei is surrounded by negative electrons cloud.

POLAR DIELECTRIC: In Polar Dielectric Material, the molecules are composed of two or more different atoms having permanent dipole moment because the centre of gravity of their positive charge and that of their negative charges are permanently separated by small distance. The molecular dipole in polar dielectric is randomly oriented so that net dipole moment is zero.

Polarization in Non Polar Molecule Electric Polarization Dielectric ...

POLARIZATION IN NON POLAR MOLECULE -- ELECTRIC POLARIZATION -- DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION

Let us consider an atom placed inside an electric field. The centre of positive charge is displaced along the applied field direction while the centre of negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction. Thus a dipole is produced. When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric field such dipole are created in all the atoms inside. This process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along the field direction is called Electric Polarization of the dielectric.

Types of Polarization Electronic Polarization Polarization Mechanism

TYPES OF POLARIZATION -- ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION
POLARIZATION

There are four types of Polarization like Electronic Polarization, Ionic Polarization, Orientation Polarization and Space Charge Polarization. The displacement of charge and formation of dipole in dielectric material when placed in an external field is called Polarization.

ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION

When a dielectric is placed in on electric field, there is a displacement of electron cloud relative to nuclei in the atom forming the molecule of dielectric. It causes an induced dipole moment in the molecule. This Phenomenon is called Electronic Polarization.

Types of Polarization Ionic Polarization Polarization Mechanism

TYPES OF POLARIZATION -- IONIC POLARIZATION

POLARIZATION

There are four types of Polarization like Electronic Polarization, Ionic Polarization, Orientation Polarization and Space Charge Polarization. The displacement of charge and formation of dipole in dielectric material when placed in an external field is called Polarization.

IONIC POLARIZATION

Ionic Polarization results from the separation of +ve and --ve ion air molecule held together by ionic bonds. When an electric field is applied to such a molecule their positive and negative ion are displaces further in opposite direction and their inter ionic separation increases until bonding force to stop the process and thus increasing the dipole moment. This is called Ionic Polarization.

Tuesday, 28 August 2012

Resonance in RLC Circuit, RLC Resonant Circuit

RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUIT

Resonance is defined as a condition in a circuit containing at least one inductor & one capacitor when the supply voltage & supply current are in phase. Thus at Resonance the equivalent impedance of the circuit is purely resistive. Since the supply voltage and supply current are in phase the power factor of the resonance circuit is unity. So Resonance is a condition which occurs in a circuit where inductor and capacitor are being used.

Numerical on Single Phase AC Circuit, Single Phase Series AC Circuit Pro...

NUMERICAL ON SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUIT

SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUIT

The circuit in which current and voltage varies sinusoidally called AC Current. All AC Circuits are made a combination of resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.

Single Phase AC Circuit, Introduction to Single Phase Series AC Circuit

SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUIT

The circuit in which current and voltage varies sinusoidally called AC Current. All AC Circuits are made a combination of resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.

Monday, 27 August 2012

RS Nomenclature, R S Nomenclature Mechanism

R S NOMENCLATURE -- RS NOMENCLATURE

Arrangement of atoms or groups of a molecule in space is known as Configuration. We can decide through configuration that how the system will behave in optical situations. Here there is a use of two words R and S means
R -- Rectus -- Right
S -- Sinister -- Left
R and S configuration shows right and left.

Reaction Intermediates, Reaction Intermediates Mechanism

REACTION INTERMEDIATES
Reaction Intermediates are generated by the breaking of Covalent Bond of the substrate. They are short-lived species and are highly reactive. There are six important types of reaction intermediates.
i. Carbocation
ii. Carbanion
iii. Free Radical
iv. Carbene
v. Benzyne
vi. Nitrene

Bragg Spectrometer, Bragg's Spectrometer Method, Working of Bragg Spectr...

BRAGG SPECTROMETER

The Bragg Equation can be used for determining the lattice parameter of cubic crystals. Bragg divided an apparatus known s X-Ray Crystal Spectrometer.

X-Rays from X-Ray tube passes through two narrow slits S_1 S_2 and strikes the single crystal mounted on the turn table. The intensity of reflected X-Ray is measured at the different ngle using ionization chamber. The Bragg angle it is possible to determine the interplanner spacing of a crystal from which the crystal lattice type can be reduced.
Let us consider ...

Compton Effect, Compton Scattering, Law of Conservation, X-Ray Scattering

COMPTON EFFECT

When a beam of Monochromatic X-Ray is made on a block of graphic and measured the wavelength of the scattered radiation at different scattering angles. The scattered X-Ray beam consist of two wavelength are with the same wavelength as that of the incident beams and was called unmodified radiation while the other with slightly higher wavelength which is known as modified radiation. This phenomenon known as Compton Effect and the change in wavelength is known as Compton Shift.

Wednesday, 22 August 2012

Resolution of a Force, Resolution of Forces

RESOLUTION OF A FORCE

Resolution of a force resolution means to break a force into two components one is Horizontal or X-axis and the second one is Vertical or along Y-axis.

Nth Derivative Part 01, Differential Calculus, nth derivative examples

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - Nth DERIVATIVE
Nth Derivative is also called Successive Differentiation.

Tuesday, 21 August 2012

Single-Multimode Fiber, Classification of Optical Fiber

SINGLE MULTIMODE FIBER

Single Multimode Fiber has longer core diameter than single mode fiber. The core diameter is (40 μm) and that of cladding is (70 μm). Multimode Fiber allows a large number of modes for the light rays travelling through it. They are not suitable for long distance communication.

Monday, 20 August 2012

Introduction to Fiber Optics, What is Fiber, Fiber Optics

INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTICS

An optical fiber is a dielectric wave guide that operates at optical frequencies. This fiber-wave-guide is normally cylindrical form.

Introduction to Optical Fiber, Optical Fiber

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBER

An optical fiber is a dielectric wave guide that operates at optical frequencies. This fiber-wave-guide is normally cylindrical form.

Physically, an optical fiber is a very thin and flexible medium having a cylindrical shape, consisting of three section, core, cladding and protective jackets as follows:

(i) The Core
(ii) The Cladding
(iii) The Protective Jacket

Thus an optical fiber can be considered as a transparent coaxial cable having core of higher refractive index and cladding, the external cable of lower refractive index. In low and medium loss fiber, the core material is generally glass which is surrounded by plastic cladding.

Principle of Optical Fiber, Optical Fiber

PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL FIBER

An Optical Fiber is a thin flexible, transparent dielectric wave guide strand meant for communication light signal through it. It is based on the principle of total internal reflection (TIR). Light ones trapped within the fiber without being lost. An Optical Fiber consists of a core at the center with refractive index〖 n〗_1. This core is surrounded by cladding whose refractive index 〖 n〗_2 is slightly lower than 〖 n〗_1. outside the cladding a protective jacket called sheath is attached. The basic function of this sheath is to provide mechanical strength to the fiber and prevent it from abrasions due to surrounding.

Stimulated Emission, Stimulated Emission LASER

STIMULATED EMISSION

A Photon of appropriate energy when interacts with an atom in excited state, then it may be its de-excitation by the emission of an additional photon of same frequency as that of incident one. This process is known as Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Spontaneous Emission Process, Spontaneous Emission LASER

SPONTANEOUS EMISSION

An atom from an excited state E2 may jump to lower energy state E1 by emitting a photon of frequency ѵ is given by
ѵ= ((E2-E1))/h
This is known as Spontaneous Emission.

What is LASER, LASER Concept, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission...

LASER

LASER stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation"

Sunday, 19 August 2012

Ruby Laser, What is Ruby Laser?, Working of Ruby Laser, Construction of ...

RUBY LASER

Ruby Laser consists of a rod of artificial Ruby Crystal of length nearly 5 cm and diameter nearly 1 cm with its end plane. The artificial Ruby is the aluminum oxide (〖Al〗_2 O_3 ) crystal mixed with 0.05% impurity of chromium oxide. One end of this rod is fully silvered so that end good reflector. The other end of the rod is partially reflector. The rod is kept inside the glass tube which is surrounded by flash tube in form of coil. The flash tube is filled with xenon (xe) gas, the end of the flash tube are connected to power supply to produce flashes since most of the post energy used in producing flashes change into the heat therefore to cool the tube, cold water is allowed to flow continuously in the glass tube.

Components of LASER, LASER Components

LASER Components, Components of LASER

There are two types of optically active substance
(i) Active Medium
(ii) Excitation Mechanism
(iii) High Reflection Mirror
(iv) Partially Transmission Mirror

LASER Types, Types of LASER, LASER

TYPES OF LASER

Now a day's various kind of LASER we are using.
(i) Solid State Laser
(ii) Gas Laser
(iii) Liquid Laser
(iv) Semiconductor Laser

Specific Rotation

SPECIFIC ROTATION

The specific rotation S of a substance at a given temperature t and for a given wavelength of light λ is defined as the rotation produced by one decimeter (10 cm) long column of the solution containing 1 gm of the active substance in 1. C. C. liquid is given by...

Polarimeter, Polarimetry, Laurent Half-Shade Polarimeter

POLARIMETER

The Polarimeter consists of Monochromatic source of light usually a sodium lamp. This light is allowed to pass through a narrow slit and then to N1 acting as Polarizer. After passing through the Nicol N1, the light becomes plane polarized and then is allowed to pass through a half shade device. The Hals Shade device consists of a circular plate with one half made up quartz and other half of glass of the same thickness.

The quartz half introduce a path difference of λ/2 between ordinary and extra ordinary light. After passing through the half-shade device, light is allowed to pass through the polarimeter containing optically active solution. Then the light is analyzed with the help of Nicol Prism n2 acting as a Analyzer.

The rotation in the light introduced to the presence of optically active substance is measured with the help of N2 connected to telescope circular scale V1V2.

Fresnel's Theory of Optical Activity, Fresnel's Theory

FRESNEL THEORY OF OPTICAL THEORY

When a Polarizer and an analyzer are crossed, no light comes out of the analyzer. When a quartz plane cut with its faces parallel to the optic axis is introduced between N1 and N2 in such a way that light falls normally on the quartz plate, then light comes out of N1 and N2. It means that plane of vibration of the plane polarized light changes (rotate) when it passes through any substances. This property of rotating the plane of vibration by a substance is known as "Optical Activity".

There are two types of optically active substance
(i) Right handed or dextro-rotatory
(ii) Left handed or leave-rotatory

Quarter wave Plate, Quarterwave Plate, Retarded Plates

Quarter Wave Plate, Retarded Plates

A plate of doubly refracting uniaxial crystal whose refracting faces are cut parallel to the direction of optics axis and its thickness "t" is such that it produces a phase difference π/2 or path difference λ/4 between emerging ordinary and extraordinary rays is known as Quarter wave plate. If...

Thursday, 16 August 2012

Fundamentals of Holography, Principle of Holography, Holography

HOLOGRAPHY -- FUNDAMENTAL OF HOLOGRAPHY -- PRINCIPLE OF HOLOGRAPHY

Light waves reflected from an object are characterized by their intensity (Square of amplitude) and phase. When both intensity and phase attributes of the waves coming from a three dimensional object is recorded, it is called construction of Hologram. When recorded hologram is illuminated by a coherent light source, the three dimensional image of the original object is formed. This formation of image is known as Reconstruction process.

Single-Multimode Fiber, Classification of Optical Fiber

Step Index Fiber and Graded Index Fiber, Step Graded Index Fiber

STEP-INDEX OPTICAL FIBER

In Step-Index Optical Fiber, the diameter of the core is high therefore more number of modes of propagation of light can be possible. So the fiber is also called as multi mode step-index fiber cladding (110 μm) and core (10 μm).

GRADED-INDEX OPTICAL FIBER

If the core has a non-uniform refractive index that gradually decreases from the center towards the core-cladding interface, the fiber is called a Graded-Index Fiber.Graded Index Optical Fiber has Core (50 μm) and cladding (70 μm) diameter.

Types of Cubic Unit Cell, Cubical Unit Cell, Types of Unit Cell

TYPES OF CUBICAL UNIT CELL

1. Simple Cubic Unit Cell
2. Body Centered Cubic Unit Cell
3. Force Centered Cubic Unit Cell
4. End Centered Cubic Unit Cell

Unit Cell and Space Lattice, Unit Cell, Space Lattice

UNIT CELL AND SPACE LATTICE

UNIT CELL
Each unit cell must be constituted of atoms, molecules or ions, as the case may be, and arranged to give the particular geometrical configuration of the crystal. The unit cell are of following types:
1. Simple or Primitive Unit Cell (p)
2. Non-Primitive or Multiple Unit Cell

SPACE LATTICE
The position of atoms, molecules or ions in a crystal, relative to one another in space, is usually designed by points such a representation is called Space Lattice.