Compton Effect, Compton Scattering, Law of Conservation, X-Ray Scattering

Compton Effect, Compton Scattering, Law of Conservation, X-Ray Scattering

COMPTON’S EFFECT

When a beam of monochromatic X-Ray is made on a block of graphite and measured the wavelength of the scattered radiation at different scattering angles the scattered x-ray beam consist of two wavelength are with the same wavelength as that of the incident beams and was called unmodified radiation while the other with slightly higher wavelength which is known as modified radiation. This phenomenon known as Compton Effect and the change in wavelength is known as Compton Shift.

Let X-Ray photon collide with an electron at rest at 0. After collision they move in the direction as incident. 

Before Collision (While electron is at rest)

After Collision (While electron moves with velocity)

Laws of Conservation

Applying the principle of conservation of momentum along the direction of incidence

Applying the principle of conservation of momentum along the direction of incidence

Bragg's Law of Diffraction, Define Bragg's Law, Bragg's Law Derivation

Bragg's Law of Diffraction, Define Bragg's Law, Bragg's Law Derivation

BRAGG’S EQUATION FOR X-Ray DIFFRACTION

When monochromatic X-Rays are incident as a crystal they get scattered by the crystal atom Brag propounded a law the constructive diffraction which is called the Bragg’s Law.

According to Bragg’s Law if d is the separation between the two nearest plane and Q is the glancing angle of the incident X-Ray with the crystal plane then for the constructive diffraction.

Consider a crystal in which atoms are arranged in a periodic manner with interatomic spacing ‘d’. A narrow beam of monochromatic X-Ray of wavelength λ is allowed to fall on a crystal at a glancing angle θ. The crystal acts as a diffracting grating with atoms as the opaque part and the spacing between them as the transparent part.

Let AB and DE be the incident rays and BC and EF be the corresponding reflected rays the path difference between the rays ABC and DEF is (GE+EH) therefore the path difference is given by

Constructive interference takes place only when the path difference is equal to nλ that is when the following condition satisfied

Davisson-Germer Experiment, Principle of Davisson and Germer Experiment

Davisson-Germer Experiment, Principle of Davisson and Germer Experiment

DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT

The experiment performed by Davisson and Germer confirmed the De-Broglie hypothesis by demonstrating that electron beams get diffracted when scattered by a crystal.

In this experiment, electrons emerge out of a hole in the form of a fine beam which is then made to fall on a nickel crystal. Electrons are scattered in all direction by the atom of the crystals. The intensity of the electrons scattered in a particular direction is found by detector. By rotating the detector about an axis the intensity of scattered beam can be measured for different angles.

Newton's Rings, Newton's Rings in Interference

 

Clamper, Clamper Circuit, Diode Clamper Circuit, Clamper Electronics, Clamper Circuit Analysis

Clamper, Clamper Circuit, Diode Clamper Circuit, Clamper Electronics, Clamper Circuit Analysis

What is Clamper?

Clamper circuit fixes one extremity of a wave form to a certain voltage level regardless of changes in the input wave form. Thus in the clamper circuit the input and output signals have the same shape but different dc levels.

POSITIVE CLAMPER

Drawing output of Circuit Below: 

CLAMPER 1:

The input to the circuit is sine wave here.

In the first +ve cycle of the diode D is reverse bias.

During the first –ve cycle of the input the diode D is forward bias. Current in the circuit will flow from point B-D-C-A. This will charge capacitor C in the shown polarity to the peak input voltage (Vm). Applying KVL in –ve cycle.

Capacitor Voltage Vc is Vm.

Now Applying KVL in +ve cycle.

The circuit has a output in which the waveform is shifting up thus it is called Positive Clamper.

Drawing output of Circuit Below (Biased Clamper):

CLAMPER 2:

During +ve Cycle, Apply KVL

Drawing output of Circuit Below (Biased Clamper):

CLAMPER 3:

During –ve cycle

During +ve cycle

NEGATIVE CLAMPER

If we turn the diode, the polarity of capacitor voltage reverses and the circuit becomes negative Clamper.

Drawing output of Circuit Below:

CLAMPER 4:

Drawing output of Circuit Below (Biased Clamper):

CLAMPER 5:

During +ve cycle

Drawing output of Circuit Below (Biased Clamper):

CLAMPER 6:

To calculate Vc

To Calculate Vo

Clipper, Clipper Circuit, Diode Clipper Circuit, Clipper Electronics, Clipper Circuit Analysis

Clipper, Clipper Circuit, Diode Clipper Circuit, Clipper Electronics, Clipper Circuit Analysis:

DEFINITION OF CLIPPER

Clippers are wave shaping circuits in which diodes are used to clip or cut off one or both extremities from the wave form of input wave or pulse.

PARALLEL CLIPPER:

In this type of Clipper, Diodes are connected in parallel to the load.

DRAWING OUTPUT OF THE FOLLOWING CLIPPER CIRCUITS:

CLIPPER 1:

CLIPPER 2:

CLIPPER 3:

CLIPPER 4:

CLIPPER 5:

SERIES CLIPPER 

The Clipper Circuit in which Diode is in series with the load is called Series Clipper.

DRAWING OUTPUT OF THE FOLLOWING CLIPPER CIRCUITS:

CLIPPER 6:

CLIPPER 7:

CLIPPER 8:

CLIPPER 9:

1.       POSITIVE CLIPPER

The clipper circuit in which positive cycle of input gets clipped off is called Positive Clipper.

2.      NEGATIVE CLIPPER

The clipper circuit in which negative cycle of the input gets clipped off is called Negative Clipper.

3.      BIASED CLIPPER

Clipper circuit in which a portion of negative or positive cycle of input gets clipper off is called biased Clipper. In this type, a battery is also involved.